Rob Philips: Reflective Teaching of History 11-18

At the heart of each of the key stages is the combination of “knowledge, skills and understanding” such as: chronological understanding; knowledge and understanding of events, people and changes in the past; historical interpretation; historical enquiry; and organization and communication. According to GCSE (www.qca.org.uk), students must be given opportunities to: acquire knowledge and understanding of select periods and/or aspects of history, exploring the significance of historical events, people, changes and issues; use historical sources critically in their context, recording significant information and reaching conclusions; develop understanding of how the past has been represented and interpreted; organize and communicate their knowledge and understanding of history; draw conclusions and appreciate that historical judgments are liable to reassessment in the light of reinterpreted evidence.

Michael Riley (1997, 2000)’s outline of enquiry: enhancing ‘in-depth’ analysis of history by cultivating a wider historical context, from which pupils were able to draw; demonstrating connections between events, changes and key features, both within and between periods; developing a deeper appreciation of change, cause and consequence; reinforcement of understanding of important historical terms and concepts; encouragement of a meaningful evaluation of evidence and interpretation.

Davies, 2001: It is our imaginations that we are fulfilled; it is there that we dream and become truly human. There are many dimensions to imagination, but one is surely the historical dimension. It is not a matter of the dates of battles or kings or the causes of revolution – important as these are – but about registering the essential otherness of the past or rather the otherness of all pasts.

Definitions of chronology based on the notion of the 4Ts (Haydn, 1997): T1, the mechanics of time, including the conventions of chronology such as dates, time like ‘BC’ and ‘AD’, the names of periods, epochs and ages (medieval, early modern, modern..); T2, the framework of the past, this involves understanding the ‘map of the past’, including a knowledge of the strands and themes of history, for example, monarchy, transport, society or warfare over time; T3, sequence of the past, including an appreciation of the sequence of events, for example the religious changes of the sixteenth century, the main battles of the WWI or the major turning points of the 12th century; T4, ‘deep time’, giving pupils an appreciation of the scale of the past, for example appreciating the time involved in ‘prehistory’, as well as clarifying misconceptions and anachronism. Concrete past/ present analogies: Sequencing; Timelines; Repetition, revisiting and familiarity; outline or overview.

Use of diagrams, charts, flow charts and timelines.
Comparative exercises, which encourage pupils to note the similarity and difference between historical situations; the notion of a ‘then/now’ comparative analysis is particularly useful.
Comparison activities that stress the importance of changes to people living at the time.
Speculation exercises, which encourage pupils based upon what that they have studied (such as the factory system) to speculate about some of the changes that may occur in subsequent decades.

Hypothetical questions (If/ If not history)
Sequencing activities, such as those suggested in relation to chronology and causation.
Identifying and justifying turning points in relation to a topic, theme or period.
'Spot the anachronism’ activities provide not only the opportunity for a serious identification of change, but also an opportunity for light relief.
Criteria for significance: Importance – to the people living at the time; Profundity – how deeply people’s lives were affected by the event; Quantity – how many lives were affected; Durability – for how long people’s lives were affected; Relevance – the extent to which the event has contributed to an increased understanding of present life.

Obstacles for understanding causation and consequence: Mistaking events and facts for causes and consequences; Not being able to identify connections between cause and effect; Only appreciating monocausal/ consequential, rather than multicausal/ consequential factors; Not being able to appreciate different significance of causes and consequences; Not being able to distinguish between long- medium- and short-term cause and consequence The tendency to accept inevitability and to dismiss contingency; Failing to understand the complexity of motivation in history.

Suggestions (concrete/ iconic mind pictures): Pyramids/ Icebergs/ Volcanoes/ Powder keg/ Steps and diving board/ Ripples/ Chains and links/ Snakes and ladders/ Trees and branches/ Rollercoaster and grand prix.